The Gig Economy and Young Graduates' Career Preferences: Between Freelancing and the Entrepreneurial Mindset
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.58229/jims.v3i1.325Keywords:
freelance entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial identity, Theory of Planned Behavior, gig economy, self-efficacyAbstract
The expansion of the gig economy has introduced freelancing as a compelling career path for university graduates seeking autonomy, flexibility, and value-aligned work. However, the transition from traditional employment aspirations to freelance entrepreneurship is shaped by complex psychological and social mechanisms that remain underexplored. This study develops and tests a structural model of freelance entrepreneurial intention by integrating the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) with entrepreneurial identity and self-efficacy. Data were collected from 254 university graduates and analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The results demonstrate that attitude toward freelancing, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control significantly influence the development of entrepreneurial identity. Entrepreneurial identity, in turn, strongly predicts the intention to pursue freelance work. While perceived behavioral control also directly affects intention, self-efficacy shows limited influence, suggesting that role internalization and social validation are more critical than confidence alone. Interestingly, subjective norms affect intention indirectly through identity rather than directly. This study contributes to entrepreneurship research by highlighting identity as a key mediating mechanism within non-traditional entrepreneurial pathways. The findings have practical implications for universities, policy-makers, and platform providers aiming to support sustainable freelance careers. Interventions emphasizing identity development—alongside skills and opportunity access—may better equip graduates to navigate the uncertainties of gig-based self-employment.
References
'Ahmed, M., & Lucianetti, L. (2024). Entrepreneurial Leadership In online Freelancing: Bricolage and Project Success. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 31(8), 105–124. https://doi.org/10.1108/jsbed-01-2023-0007
Beerepoot, N., Lambregts, B., & Oprins, J. (2023). Digital Reputation, Skills and Uncertainty Reduction on Global Digital Labour Platforms. Work Organisation Labour & Globalisation, 17(2). https://doi.org/10.13169/workorgalaboglob.17.2.0007
Bhardwaj, A., & Sergeeva, A. (2022). Values‐based Trust as a Shift Parameter for Collective Organizing: The Case of Magnum Photos. Journal of Management Studies, 60(8), 2022–2059. https://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12820
Blyth, D. L., Jarrahi, M. H., Lutz, C., & Newlands, G. (2022). Self-Branding Strategies of Online Freelancers on Upwork. New Media & Society, 26(7), 4008–4033. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221108960
Braesemann, F., Stephany, F., Teutloff, O., kässi, otto, Graham, M., & Lehdonvirta, V. (2022). The Global Polarisation of Remote Work. Plos One, 17(10), e0274630. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0274630
Chakraborty, U., & Biswal, S. K. (2023). Impact of Social Media Participation on Female Entrepreneurs Towards Their Digital Entrepreneurship Intention and Psychological Empowerment. Journal of Research in Marketing and Entrepreneurship, 25(3), 374–392. https://doi.org/10.1108/jrme-03-2021-0028
Coetzee, M. (2023). Students’ Career Capital Resource Needs for Employability in the Technology-Driven Work World. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 14(1), 136–150. https://doi.org/10.21153/jtlge2023vol14no1art1658
Dunumadalawa, D. G. M. C., Senarath, T. U. S., & Sudasinghe, S. A. H. S. (2024). Factors Associated With the Adaptation of Freelancing by Selected State University Students in Sri Lanka. Journal of Management Matters, 11(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.4038/jmm.v11i1.64
Enongene, G. N., & Isoh, A. V. N. (2024). The Mediating Role of Self - Efficacy on Students’ Entrepreneurship Education and Entrepreneurship Intention in Buea Municipality. Business Management and Strategy, 15(2), 352. https://doi.org/10.5296/bms.v15i2.22432
Eslami, F., & Hooshmandi, R. (2023). Experiences of Freelancers With AI and Chatbots. Aitechbesosci, 1(3), 28–34. https://doi.org/10.61838/kman.aitech.1.3.5
Flatøy, C. A. (2024). Free to Have Imbalance? Freelancers’ Work–life Balance and the Moderating Role of Three Key Work Facets. Personnel Review, 54(4), 1066–1080. https://doi.org/10.1108/pr-02-2023-0104
Gielnik, M. M., Frese, M., Bischoff, K. M., & ... (2016). Positive impact of entrepreneurship training on entrepreneurial behavior in a vocational training setting. Africa Journal of …. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322373.2016.1206804
Gollmitzer, M. (2024). Care(lessness) in Precarious Journalism, Before and During the Pandemic: Freelancers’ Work-Life Experiences and Coping Strategies. Global Media and China, 9(2), 206–220. https://doi.org/10.1177/20594364241230434
Gussek, L., & Wiesche, M. (2024). Understanding the Careers of Freelancers on Digital Labor Platforms: The Case of IT Work. Information Systems Journal, 34(5), 1664–1702. https://doi.org/10.1111/isj.12509
Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., Sarstedt, M., Danks, N. P., & Ray, S. (2021). Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) Using R. Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80519-7
Hsu, D. K., Mitchell, J., & Cao, X. (2023). Examining Psychological Mediators in Entrepreneurship: Experimental Designs, Remedies, and Recommendations. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 48(1), 418–445. https://doi.org/10.1177/10422587231152824
Isfahani, F. F., Sadeghi, E., Shakibaei, F., & Maracy, M. R. (2022). Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms and Entrepreneurial Behavior: A Mediation Analysis. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 16(4). https://doi.org/10.5812/ijpbs-126423
Jayasankar, N., & Sumathi, G. N. (2023). Subjective Well-Being of Employees and Freelancers in the Information Technology Sector. Journal of Law and Sustainable Development, 11(10), e911. https://doi.org/10.55908/sdgs.v11i10.911
Jin, D., Liu, X., Fuqin, Z., & Wen, Z. (2023). Entrepreneurial Role Models and College Students’ Entrepreneurial Calling: A Moderated Mediation Model. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1129495
Kobayashi, A., & Hazra, L. (2024). Analysis of the Current Status on Entrepreneurial Intentions Among CrowdWorks Freelancers in Japan. International Journal of Applied Research in Management and Economics, 7(1), 31–46. https://doi.org/10.33422/ijarme.v7i1.1194
Kurjono, K. (2022). Entrepreneurial Intentions: Between Entrepreneurial Knowledge, Entrepreneurial Skills and Perceived Control Behavior. Dinamika Pendidikan, 17(2), 146–163. https://doi.org/10.15294/dp.v17i2.39783
Lan, Y. J., Shi, Y., Liu, Y., & Wu, W. (2024). The Influence Mechanism of Women’s Entrepreneurial Self-Identity on Entrepreneurial Well-Being: Evidence From China. Gender in Management an International Journal, 39(7), 878–899. https://doi.org/10.1108/gm-02-2023-0046
Li, H., Bai, X., Huang, L., Huang, Y., & Han, G. (2023). How Does College Students’ Entrepreneurial Learning Influence Entrepreneurial Intention: Evidence From China. Sustainability, 15(12), 9301. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129301
Liao, K., Liu, Z., & Li, B. (2022). The Effect of Psychological Capital and Role Conflict on the Academic Entrepreneurial Intents of Chinese Teachers in Higher Education: A Study Based on the Theory of Planned Behavior. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.793408
Lijia, C. (2023). Overview of Entrepreneurial Intention of College Students. Frontiers in Educational Research, 6(21). https://doi.org/10.25236/fer.2023.062123
Lin, Q., Chen, Y., Lai, J., & Zhang, X. (2024). The Effect Mechanism of Perceived Entrepreneurial Environment on Chinese College Students’ Entrepreneurial Intention: Chain Mediation Model Test. Frontiers in Psychology, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1374533
Liu, F., & Singhdong, P. (2024). The Influence of Entrepreneurial Intention and Entrepreneurial Capability on Entrepreneurial Performance. Rmutt-Gber, 19(2), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.60101/rmuttgber.2024.276879
Nawaz, Z., Talib, M. N. A., & Abbas, A. (2024). Gig Workers as Sustainable Human Resource: A Study of Freelancer Value Proposition and Its Impact on Platform Usage Intentions. Human Systems Management, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.3233/hsm-240049
Pang, C., Xie, R., Kang, N., & Hu, Z. (2025). The Impact of Career Education Participation on Academic Self-Efficacy: The Sequential Mediating Role of Career Adaptability and Learning Engagement. Behavioral Sciences, 15(2), 174. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15020174
Pham, V. H., Nguyen, T. K. C., Nguyen, T. B. L., Tran, T. T. T., & Nguyen, T. V. N. (2023). Subjective Norms and Entrepreneurial Intention: A Moderated-Serial Mediation Model. Journal of Entrepreneurship Management and Innovation, 19(1), 113–140. https://doi.org/10.7341/20231914
Pulignano, V., Grimshaw, D., Domecka, M., & Vermeerbergen, L. (2023). Why Does Unpaid Labour Vary Among Digital Labour Platforms? Exploring Socio-Technical Platform Regimes of Worker Autonomy. Human Relations, 77(9), 1243–1271. https://doi.org/10.1177/00187267231179901
Purmono, B. B. (2023). Entrepreneurial Intention Among Generation Z Education Self Efficacy and Attitude. Enrichment Journal of Management, 13(1), 16–31. https://doi.org/10.35335/enrichment.v13i1.1228
Putra, B. A., Budiyanto, & Suwitho, S. (2024). Strategic Thinking as a Catalyst: Shedding the Light on Entrepreneurial Intention and Activities Among College Graduates. International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science (2147-4478), 13(3), 66–76. https://doi.org/10.20525/ijrbs.v13i3.3285
Rexhepi, B. R., Daci, E., Mustafa, L., & Berisha, B. I. (2024). Analysis of the Effectiveness of Freelance Exchanges and Their Demand Among Corporate Customers in the Context of Tax Regulation. Scientific Bulletin of Mukachevo State University Series “Economics,” 11(1), 60–70. https://doi.org/10.52566/msu-econ1.2024.60
Ringle, C. M., Sarstedt, M., Mitchell, R., & ... (2020). Partial least squares structural equation modeling in HRM research. … International Journal of …. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2017.1416655
Rotimi, M. E., Olorunkanmi, J. O. I., Rotimi, G. G., & Doorasamy, M. (2022). Does Entrepreneurship Education Determine Entrepreneurial Motivation Among University Graduates?: An Empirical Investigation. Jurnal Ekonomi Bisnis & Entrepreneurship, 16(2), 107–123. https://doi.org/10.55208/jebe.v16i2.257
Sa’adah, N., Fitria, V., & Widiastuti, R. S. K. (2023). Career Reorientation During the Covid-19 Pandemic: Evidence From Fresh Graduates of Indonesian Colleges. Journal of Social Studies (Jss), 19(1), 79–92. https://doi.org/10.21831/jss.v19i1.56199
Seo, J., Kim, J., & Mesquita, L. F. (2023). Does Vicarious Entrepreneurial Failure Induce or Discourage One’s Entrepreneurial Intent? A Mediated Model of Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy and Identity Aspiration. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 30(1), 52–71. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijebr-08-2022-0753
Wang, L., & Yu, Z. (2023). Gender-Moderated Effects of Academic Self-Concept on Achievement, Motivation, Performance, and Self-Efficacy: A Systematic Review. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1136141
Wu, L., Jiang, S., Wang, X., Yu, L., Wang, Y., & Pan, H. (2022). Entrepreneurship Education and Entrepreneurial Intentions of College Students: The Mediating Role of Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy and the Moderating Role of Entrepreneurial Competition Experience. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.727826
Yani, A. (2024). The Impact of Psychological Factors in Decision-Making to Start and Develop Entrepreneurial Initiatives. J.Tender, 1(1), 21–27. https://doi.org/10.61100/tender.v1i1.148
Олешко, В. Ф., & Mukhina, O. S. (2022). Media Freelancers of the Digital Age: Social, Legal and Ethical Aspects. Kne Social Sciences, 104–113. https://doi.org/10.18502/kss.v7i2.10284
Панић, Д. С., & Janković–Milić, V. (2022). Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy and Business Success of Entrepreneurs in the Republic of Serbia: A Pilot Study. Teme, 113. https://doi.org/10.22190/teme200323006s
